Model systems and integration strategies to capture human biology.

No current human model platform fully closes the loop between sensing, tissue modelling, computational calibration, and feedback-guided intervention, limiting boundary-level biology studies.

• Why it matters: Key responses often arise at interfaces where matrix, immune, and systemic signals converge, and conventional in vitro and animal approaches still fall short there.
• What they did: The Review integrates engineered materials, organoids/assembloids/microphysiological systems, and computational models, emphasizing benchmarking, vascularization, immune integration, maturation, reproducibility, and donor variation.
• The result: Combining these approaches is positioned to better organize measurements, test mechanisms, and improve prediction, while highlighting the need to justify model complexity by the human question.

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